Modern Chinese Culture
Course Paper (30%) – Due in class Thursday April 4th
Write an essay of no more than 2000 words which analyses a modern Chinese cultural phenomenon or an example of specific cultural output in relation to
domestic and/or international historical, economic, social or political contexts in China. Include the word count at the end of the main body of your paper.
Here’s a reminder of some of the modern Chinese cultural phenomena and examples of specific cultural outputs discussed in the course:
Words, messaging, visual representations and ideas of the China Dream
Road to Revival exhibition at the National Museum of China Contemporary hip hop dance and rap music phenomenon Belt and Road Initiative, China’s international vision and Chinese culture
Urban and rural in contemporary China and Chinese culture Shanghai Baby – gender, market and consumer culture in Chinese cities Chinese avant-garde art and artistic practices in China and overseas
Ode to Joy – White collar women migrants and “beauties at work” Shanghai Foxtrot and the emergence of modernist literature Ballroom dance and jazz music craze in 1930s Shanghai
The Travels of Lao Can, Call to Arms and the True Story of A Q and the emergence of modern realist literary critique
Maoist revolution, elite politics and socialist realism in visual and performing arts
The Cultural Revolution in film, art and literature The Three Body Problem Reforms and opening, Democracy Wall and High Culture Fever
Implications of Tiananmen Square 1989 and it’s aftermath for Chinese culture Internet, social media and changing cultural norms in contemporary China China’s sharing economy and the shifting culture of consumerism
New nationalistic and patriotic representations in contemporary Chinese cinema Analysis of other modern Chinese cultural phenomena or specific cultural outputs
is also possible, including literature, visual and performing arts, and other media
References – You must use at least THREE academic sources (originally published in English) beyond the assigned readings. Include a full bibliography of references (including materials in Chinese or other languages), along with other non-academic
sources you may have used, at the end of your paper. Links to information about referencing, citations and bibliographies can be found in the course outline. Detailed Guidelines for Referencing have also been posted on CourseSpaces. While you may not
find references about the specific topic of your paper, academic sources on relevant related issues and themes are acceptable.
Other considerations – You are strongly encouraged, wherever possible and
appropriate, to make use of images, diagrams, or charts to illustrate your analysis and findings. You will not be marked down for writing a solid paper in essay format.
Originality of topics – Papers prepared for another course may not be submitted.
Anyone wishing to work on a topic addressed in another course must obtain the written permission of the instructor at least two weeks before the due date.
Late submissions – Late papers will not be accepted without the prior permission of
the instructor and only as a result of exceptional extenuating circumstances. Failure to hand in the course paper on time will result in a grade of zero for this assignment.
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Your course paper should include the following components:
1. A brief introduction and overview of the topic of your paper.
2. A statement of rationale (and/or background) which justifies the analysis you plan to undertake. Why is the topic of interest? Why is it important?
3. A statement of your main objective(s), or research question(s) and/or hypothesis.
This section should include reference to the relevant ideas and debates in the academic literature. Reference to academic literature may also appear in earlier and later sections of your paper.
4. A short section on methodology which describes how you address your main objective(s), answer your research question(s) or evaluate your hypothesis. What sort of information did you use and how? What methods did you use to analyze and
present this information? 5. The main part of the paper will focus on a critical analysis and discussion of your
findings or main arguments about Chinese culture in relation to wider historical
circumstances or other relevant contexts in China or internationally. This section should include a brief discussion about the limitations of your analysis and findings. For example, you should identify any assumptions, and/or strengths and limitations
of your interpretations. 6. The concluding section should briefly summarize your key findings (or arguments) in
relation to the main ideas and/or debates – both from class discussions and from
the academic literature referred to in earlier sections.
Academic integrity – Preparation of this paper is subject to University protocols on
plagiarism and cheating as described in the course outline. Offences will result in a grade of zero for this assignment, and may result in a failing grade for the course. The instructor reserves the right to use plagiarism detection software or other
platforms to assess the integrity of student work.
Practices that are NOT acceptable include: X Persuading or paying someone else to write your essay, or otherwise presenting
someone else’s work as your own X Downloading essays or articles from the internet and submitting part or whole as
your own work
X Copying and pasting passages from books, journals, online resources or other sources, and presenting them as your own work
X Citing only a portion of a quotation, and presenting the remainder as your own work
X The use of an editor – either as an individual or service, whether paid or unpaid – who manipulates revises, corrects or alters your essay
Grading – The marker will be looking for:
Knowledge and understanding of the modern Chinese cultural phenomenon or specific cultural output chosen for your analysis, and how it relates to the relevant wider context in China or internationally
Solid critical analysis and discussion of your findings or main arguments Relevance and appropriate use of academic literature, including complete,
correct and consistent citations and referencing
Clear and appropriate structure and organization Clear evidence of your knowledge and understanding of the ideas and debates in
the academic literature relevant to your selected topic
An A+ paper must offer original insights and/or go beyond expectations
Formatting – 1” margins, double spaced, minimum 12 pt font (11 pt for Verdana)
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PAAS 151 – Modern Chinese Culture
Three Body: Liu Cixin’s Call for the Chinese to Fully Enter the World Stage,
Despite their Anxieties
Chinese science fiction is not something unlike science fiction found in the
West. It draws on similar themes, questions, and anxieties that are shared in the
genre of both hemispheres. But Chinese science fiction is different from Western
science fiction: it was raised in a setting hostile to such discussions. The Cultural
Revolution still has an impact in China today, despite being a subject the
government is unwilling to acknowledge. Chinese author Han Song states that
many science fiction authors feel the “country’s rapid modernization [is] the stuff of
fiction,” which grounds the perfect setting in which to write science fiction: the
authors have seen the effects of incredible technological advancements (Song,
2013, 18).
Liu Cixin’s Three Body Trilogy is set over a long period of time, but begins
with the Cultural Revolution. This pivotal starting place sets the one for the series:
all hope is lost, and everyone is out to get you. This was the style of the Cultural
Revolution, but as Three Body teaches us, every civilisation in the universe must
fend for itself against the others. There are no allies. As the years pass and Earth
must face the reality that another civilisation, the Trisolarans, wishes to take over
Earth, a common humanity is declared, and nations must set aside their differences
and work for the common good.
Through a case study of the Three Body trilogy written by Liu Cixin, this
essay will examine the impact the Cultural Revolution continues to exert on
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contemporary science fiction and Chinese citizens themselves while simultaneously
voicing cultural anxieties pertaining to China’s contemporary view of the West. In
doing this, this paper will bring to light the importance of these historical events
even today, and that perhaps governmental silence is perpetuating the need for
writers to discuss this troubling history. This essay will not discuss the issue of
utopianism in science fiction, as it is not a common theme in the case study; it is,
however, a crucial discussion when looking at certain works of science fiction after
Tiananmen Square and the despair that followed. Themes of utopia or dystopia are
can be directly linked back to the Chinese political platform of the 1980s, as the
Party ran on the hope of creating a harmonious society. This essay will draw on
research on Three Body specifically, but also on broader research regarding science
fiction in China. The methods of research executed for the purpose of this paper
were reading and analysing the Three Body trilogy from a contemporary Chinese
perspective, as well as determining other scholars’ interpretations of the texts.
It is important to discuss the reality of the science fiction scene in China is
that it has not had success reaching a wide audience. Many readers hold the
impression that science fiction is nothing more than “stories for children” (Song,
2013, 15). But literary actors in Chinese cultural development of the early twentieth
century were very optimistic about science fiction in the Chinese context. Chinese
science fiction author Han Song identifies that “Liang [Qichao] and Lu [Xun]
believed that science fiction would help the spread of modern knowledge in China,
emancipate people’s minds and bring positive developments to a declining
civilization that was being surpassed by the industrialized Western nations” (2013,
15). In theory, science fiction was thought to have the capability of saving the
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nation, and for a while it did lift people’s spirits “as the genre instilled pride in
readers who saw China defeat Western countries with imaginary high-tech weapons
in the future” (2013, 15). Science fiction, as a genre, suffered during the Cultural
Revolution as it was criticized for being “something from corrupt Western culture
that could lead people astray” (2013, 16). The genre has only seen a renewal of
success since the 1990s, when China embraced an economic boom and writers
were granted more freedoms as China entered the global stage (2013, 16). By
studying this marginalised genre, one can study unvoiced anxieties as they appear
in the forms of these troubled characters and challenging situations.
But even today, “most Chinese people have no idea about science fiction;”
readers are “more interested in things that have a direct influence on their daily
lives” (Song, 2013, 21). There is more interest in building relationships with the
people around them “than on exploring the relationship of human beings to a vast
nature” (2013, 21). This is a China-specific issue that has its effect on science
fiction as a successful genre. This is certainly not a negative characteristic; it is
admirable to desire to understand daily life and build relationships with those who
share our lives. But those who do read Chinese science fiction, can observe the
relationships embedded in human nature. Science fiction also offers opportunities to
think about our own lives from a different perspective, as in the Three Body trilogy,
people are still people. The Three Body trilogy has sold “more than 500,000 copies
in China since the final installment” in 2010, numbers for which it quite the name in
the Chinese science fiction sphere (Thieret, 2015, 36). But given the current
population of China being over 1.3 billion, that is not meeting anywhere near a
majority audience. Science fiction simply does not exhibit the practicality which
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Chinese people are looking to find. Science fiction, and its often utopian or
dystopian settings appear to be an escape from practicality, which cannot help
Chinese people build relationships or solve day-to-day issues. This factor is crucial
to the debate of Chinese science fiction, and rather the reason why Chinese science
fiction might just never be successful, within China.
So, what can science fiction do within China? Han Song states that
contemporary Chinese science fiction seeks to place China in “hypothetically
extreme situations to see how people might respond to radical changes” (2013,
17). This is an vital distinction of the genre, as today sees the ever-growing
tensions between the United States in the west and China in the east. It begs the
question: what if the radical change forced Chinese nationalists to work with the
rest of the world? Three Body creates a world that forces the Chinese audience to
imagine themselves not at odds with the West, but working together with them.
Such an extreme example seems to suggest that such a radical situation should not
be the only cause for the two sides to get along.
Three Body can be used to examine the issues of American and Chinese
discourse, and the nations’ respective differences and difficulties understanding one
another. The author is writing at this critical point in the Chinese cultural period,
where the government is trying to protect Chinese culture and maintain the values
it has deemed important to the Chinese historical and cultural body. The author
does what Peter Gries has suggested is an answer to the problem of Chinese
harmony and American hegemony: focus on the common humanity of the two
nations (2007, 47). These two nations can work together without damaging their
own internal cultures. When given a common enemy, the world must work together
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to survive the universal threat, and in Three Body China is portrayed as ready, and
willing to fight for humanity. Obviously, this work of science fiction offers an intense
reason for a need for common humanity, but it can also describe the successes of
this solution for the problem of discourse.
For instance, the United Nations still plays a prominent figure in this Chinese-
focused novel. An organisation, formed historically to unite countries in a time
following great crises between nations, organises strategies for nations to follow.
China was originally included in the formation of the Unites Nations, proving from
an early point in modern history that China could cooperate to certain extents with
other nations. This is not a novel where China is portrayed as standing alone in a
science fictional catastrophe; it speaks to a need for humans to unite from our
differences and thrive together. In Liu Cixin’s fictional future, the two languages of
English and Chinese have moulded into one language while still entirely
encapsulating the intricacies of the two linguistic spheres. This plays on the
contemporary cultural anxiety that China will adopt too many loanwords from
English, endangering its linguistic niche.
In contrast, many works of American science fiction paint the Chinese as an
enemy determined to thwart intellectual progress. Obviously, Chinese cinema has
also played on this trope as mentioned above, but also in films like the Wolf Warrior
franchise. With this common theme in Three Body, this novel could be another
patriotic voice of the Chinese people: they are not the enemy, and willing to work
with like-minded individuals for a common cause. Rather interestingly, this is a very
explicit distinction in the novel. Rather than nations competing for or against
humanity’s best interest, organisations rise regardless or nationality against
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humanity’s survival against the Trisolarans. Though a character may have a
Chinese name or an English name, he or she acts on their own volition, on their
moral stance toward the outward threat rather than a nation’s decision. In the first
novel in the trilogy, the world’s population is split into those who wish to defend
Earth from the Trisolarans and those who want the Trisolarans to wipe out
humanity. This becomes the common fight: to thwart the other group from
succeeding its goal, regardless of national borders.
Characters within the novel, such as Ye Wenjie, can be seen as direct results
of the Cultural Revolution. Her disillusionment with humanity stems from the
injustices she and her family personally suffered during the Cultural Revolution.
When she is the first to contact the Trisolarans, even well-knowing it may end
humanity’s existence entirely, she “[invites] them to invade Earth, a decision that
echoes her mixed feelings about the Cultural Revolution” (Song, 2015, 10). It must
be remembered that the author himself lived through the Cultural Revolution, and
thus a personal bitterness may bleed into his writing. An argument can be made
that this negative attitude is purposefully adopted by a character who experienced
the Cultural Revolution. This critical point in Chinese history, which the current
government refuses to acknowledge, has potentially shaped a nation to be
disillusioned with humanity. Despite these disillusioned, destructive characters, Liu
Cixin creates a backdrop that this is not what China is. Though it suffers from these
anxieties, “a strong and powerful China is here to stay” (Thieret, 2015, 36). The
intellectuals existing in this dystopia may still be disillusioned with society, but the
focus is drawn to their values, disassociating them with the current situation in
China. This is because Liu sees that “the reality of worldwide risks demands far
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greater attention than any perceived risks to the Chinese nation…one could say that
this is because China and the world face the same risks in the contemporary world”
(Thieret, 2015, 36). China can partake in the global sphere, and Liu wants his
readers to understand as well that China can play as a positive actor on the world
stage.
The science fiction literary world still holds its inner anxieties regarding the
Cultural Revolution of the 1960s. Three Body has a significant setting based in the
Cultural Revolution, and is not exactly friendly toward the brutal history of the time
period. Though it has been over fifty years, the author still conveyed concern about
discussing the topic when asked in an interview with The Guardian (Barnett, 2016).
Though it is a very real and very recent part of China’s history, the government is
still extremely strict about content released that in any way touches on the subject
of the horrors of the Cultural Revolution. But the novel was not censored by the
government, and has received widespread success both within and outside China.
This is a curious factor, as science fiction that challenged the ethicality of Chinese
politics was shut down by the government in the 1980s (Song, 2015, 7). Could the
allowance of such controversial opinions in Three Body be a sign of a shift in the
Communist Party’s attitudes toward public opinion? The Party will take all
precautions to ignore the situation, as they created the Road to Revival exhibit
which extracted the Cultural Revolution from the Party’s journey to modernity
(Denton, 2014, 1).
Looking at where China has come from, and the anxieties it still experiences
from its past, Liu and other Chinese science fiction authors believe that “the future
looks more colorful and positive than ever and more open to the spirit of discovery”
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(Song, 2013, 18). Relating to this, he also believes that “China should shoulder
more responsibility for solving the problems faced by human beings in a changing
world” as it becomes increasingly involved in international affairs (Song, 2013, 18).
This is again calling on China’s shared humanity with the rest of the world: it does
not have to exist in a bubble to thrive. Current events in China are constantly
contradicting: the shutdown of the internet, the sharing of technological culture
with the west, and increased economic agreements with the outside world. It is as
if the government cannot decide how it should react to the interconnectivity of the
international playing field.
Three Body exists in a culture that is unsure about science fiction, stagnating
its ability to reach widespread success. But the ideas the trilogy discusses are would
be beneficial to the Chinese society, despite being hidden behind stunning
technology and the threat of alien invasion. Three Body speaks to humanity’s
eternal problem of not being able to get along, something that China is
experiencing on a very real front today. The differences in Western and Chinese
discourse do not fundamentally separate them: it is something to work on and learn
to understand, which can benefit both nations in an exchange of culture. But China
still must face its inner demons found in the Cultural Revolution, and the
government’s refusal to acknowledge this past. This inability to take responsibility
within its own country could have devastating effects if executed likewise on the
global stage. Facing international distress can bring opposites together, but
hopefully it does not have to come to the threat of aliens for these sides to realise
that.
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Works Cited
Barnett, David. “’People hope my book will be China’s Star Wars’: Liu Cixin on
China’s exploding sci-fi Scene.” The Guardian, 14 December 2016.
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/dec/14/liu-cixin-chinese-sci-fi-universal-
the-three-body-problem.
Denton, Kirk A. “China Dreams and the ‘Road to Revival’.” Origins, vol. 8, no. 3, 2014, pp. 1-2.
Gries, Peter H. “Harmony, Hegemony, & U.S.-China Relations.” World Literature
Today, vol. 81, no. 4, 2007, pp. 44–47.
Song, Han. “Chinese Science Fiction: A Response to Modernization.” Science Fiction
Studies, vol. 40, no. 1, 2013, pp. 15–21. JSTOR, JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/10.5621/sciefictstud.40.1.0015.
Song, Mingwei. “After 1989: The New Wave of Chinese Science Fiction.” China
Perspectives, vol. 101, no. 1, 2015, pp. 7–13. JSTOR, JSTOR,
www.jstor.org/stable/43392960.
Thieret, Adrian. “Society and Utopia in Liu Cixin.” China Perspectives, vol. 101, no.
1, 2015, pp. 33–39. JSTOR, JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43392963.
PAAS 151 – Modern Chinese Culture
Course Paper: The Red Guards
Introduction
The Cultural Revolution is an event widely known around the world for its horrendous
impact upon the Chinese people from the ten year span 1966-1976. This destruction was
conducted by the youth followers of Mao Zedong, labelled Red Guards, who carried out Mao’s
mandate to “break the four olds — old ideas, old customs, old culture, and old habits” ; however, 1
what was considered to be old was ambiguous in meaning, and was open to interpretation by
these young Red Guards . The events of the Cultural Revolution commenced with students 2
breaking classroom windows and beating teachers in 1966 , this mandate made scenes of 3
violence and destruction against anything labelled ‘anti-Mao’ commonplace across China for
these ten years. Although the official number of deaths varies, an official statement issued by the
Communist Party of China in 1981 states that, “[the Cultural Revolution] was responsible for the
most severe setback and the heaviest losses suffered by the Party, the state and the people since
the founding of the People’s Republic” . This paper will firstly define who the Red Guard 4
Generation are demographically. Secondly, this paper will analyze the changing cultural
1 Mobo Gao, “Debating the Cultural Revolution: Do We Only Know What We Believe?”, Critical Asian Studies 34, 3 (2002), 425. 2 Thomas Heberer, “The “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution”: China’s modern trauma”, Journal of Modern Chinese History 3, 2 (2009), 172. 3 Yixin Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform: The socioeconomic pains of China’s red guards generation, 1966–1996”, Journal of Contemporary China 8, 21 (1999), 223. 4 Marxists, “Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China”, https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm
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https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm
expectations that society experienced during the Cultural Revolution. During this time period,
many violent occurrences came to define this generation, as torture and destruction became a
daily scene upheld by the influence of Mao Zedong . Lastly, this paper will analyze what the 5
lasting cultural impacts the Red Guard generation has made upon China to this date. While
lasting damage was done to temples, art and literature, it was also done to this generation.
However, this event did produce the genre called ‘scar literature’ to express discontent over the
unsavoury portions of the Cultural Revolution being airbrushed away by party propaganda . 6
In order to address these main objectives this paper, multiple academic articles relating to
the Red Guards, the ‘Lost Generation’ and the Cultural Revolution will be analyzed; as well as a
short excerpt from an account of the actions undertaken by Red Guards called ‘scar literature’;
and lastly an academic article providing analysis on the genre of scar literature. The academic
articles will be used to give historical and cultural context, whereas the scar literature will
provide a source of cultural output created by those of the Red Guard generation.
Critical Analysis and Discussion
While the severity of the Cultural Revolution is contested, with some experts saying it
was “[a] hideous abuse of totalitarian power, perhaps second only to that of the Nazi period in
Germany” , this event is widely believed by historians to be Mao’s creation to usurp his political 7
enemies . However, in doing so, essential pieces of Chinese culture were changed. Mao’s 8
5 Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 220. 6 Shenshen Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered: Yan Geling’s novels The Criminal Lu Yanshi and A Woman’s Epic”, Social Semiotics 25, 3 (March 2015), 322. 7 Julia F Andrews, “The art of the Cultural Revolution”, in Richard King (eds.), Art in turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966-76, 27. 8 Andrews, Art in turmoil, 30.
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directive not only destroyed Chinese art, historical buildings, and literature, but also the future of
a generation. This generation was the Red Guards themselves, who, because of carrying out
Mao’s mandate, created detriments against their own future. In doing so, they have become both
influenced and been an influencer on Chinese culture. The Red Guard generation consists of
approximately 27 million young people from urban areas, born between 1947 and 1959 . This 9
generation is widely labelled as a “Lost Generation”, due to the time they lost while being
‘re-educated’ in the countryside after the Red Guards were denounced by Mao . While not all of 10
the youths from this time period were sent to the countryside for reformation or participated in
the Red Guard movement of violence, the majority of members from this generation experienced
the many facets of the Cultural Revolution.
One of these facets was the change in cultural expectations, which started to occur under
the gaze of Mao Zedong. This change of values started to occur with the pre-Cultural Revolution
education that the majority of the Red Guard generation received, which made them susceptible
to follow Mao’s mandate which was in line with what they had learned in the classroom. This
education was vastly different from what the Red Guard generation’s predecessors had received.
Instead of focusing on sciences or math, this education instead focused mainly on subjects in the
humanities, arts, and social sciences ; as well as ideals such as “heroism, patriotism, altruism, 11
communist internationalism, some Confucianism” . An example of the ideals within this 12
9 Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 221. 10 Lin, Qianhan, “Lost in Transformation? The Employment Trajectories of China’s Cultural Revolution Cohort”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 646, (March 2013), 173. 11 Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 238. 12 ibid., 222.
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generation, as a product of this education, can be seen in the General Secretary of the Chinese
Communist Party, Xi Jinping. While the Cultural Revolution is over, the ideals carried within
this generation are still present, as these ideals were so deeply integrated into their minds by the
education taught to this generation when they were youths . The messages of patriotism, 13
altruism, communist internationalism are all echoed in his policies today. From the China dream,
which promotes patriotism and altruism; to the One Belt One Road, which supports
internationalism, these policies showing the ideals held by creator. Overall this education
changed the Red Guard generation’s way of thinking, making the Red Guard generation
idealistic as well as susceptible to carry out the actions of the Cultural Revolution, as they truly
believed that their actions would bring light to a “great revolution” in China. 14
This belief that they were ‘bringing light’ to great change fueled the vast violence,
destruction and cruelty that plagued the ten years of the Cultural Revolution. Another cultural
norm during this time that was adjusted was the status structure regarding age. During this time
the youth held the power, not the educated aged elite. These youths of the Red Guard could
strike fear into others simply by reciting quotes from Mao, the mere threat of violence silencing
people of all ages . This fear of violence was not unfounded, as during this time many people 15
were persecuted for any possible reason, to be arrested, tortured or killed . While the Red Guard 16
movement was founded by Mao “to destroy the established order in China” , and many Red 17
13 ibid., idem. 14 Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 222. 15 Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172. 16 ibid., idem. 17 Juliana P Heaslet, “The Red Guards: Instruments of Destruction in the Cultural Revolution”, Asian Survey 12, 12 (December 1972), 1046.
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Guards did initially participate to follow Mao’s mandate, some red guard members did undertake
violent action to take matters into their own hands to further their own personal agendas and
grudges . An example of this pursual of a personal agenda can be seen in an excerpt of scar 18
literature which depicts the experience of a former red guard:
As soon as I was pressed into the room with the others, my nostrils were filled with the
stench of feces, urine, and unwashed bodies… Then I saw the accused woman. She was
perhaps in her forties, kneeling in the middle of the room, partly naked. . . Her hair was in
a mess, and part of it seemed to be matted with blood. Her eyes were bulging out in
desperation as she shrieked: ‘Red Guard Masters! I do not have a portrait of Chiang
Kai-shek! I swear I do not!’… The flesh on her back was covered with cuts and
bloodstains. I was so frightened that I quickly averted my eyes. Then I saw her tormentor,
a seventeen-year-old boy named Chian, whom up to now I had rather liked. He was
lounging in a chair with a leather belt in his hand, playing with its brass buckle.‘Tell the
truth, or I’ll hit you again,’ he said languidly…My feeble protest was echoed by several
voices in the room… Outside the door, I saw the woman informer with the ingratiating
eyes. . . As I glanced at her face, it dawned on me that there was no portrait of Chiang
Kai-shek. She had denounced the poor woman out of vindictiveness. The Red Guards
were being used to settle old scores. 19
18 Gao, “Debating the Cultural Revolution”, 423. 19 Jung Chang, Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China (2004), quoted in Thomas Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172-173.
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Although this piece of scar literature is just one example of the many occurances like this
during the Cultural Revolution, it illustrates the mixed emotions held for wanting to be empathic
but ultimately clinging to self preservation because of the fear of the possible repercussions. It
depicts the “everyday life of terror” for many during this period of the Cultural Revolution , 20
where the power was held in the hands of youth Red Guard and the consequences for stepping
out of line were grim. This shift of power signaled that the Red Guards were practically
invincible with the support and protection of the government , even if only to pursue their own 21
personal vendettas in Mao’s name. The shift in morals and what was found to be culturally
acceptable during this time makes for a deeply troubled sense of self for those involved. A work
analyzing these events states, “The Cultural Revolution not only left millions dead, it also
crushed humanitarian values and defiled the sanctity of the human spirit… How can a people
which morally has fallen so deep ever rebound back?” . All of these actions can be traced back 22
to the foundational element of education the majority of the red guards received which was in
line with Mao’s mandate to remove the four olds. This belief that the actions being undertaken
were right and just and the change in social norms and ideals all lead to the commencement of 23
the horrendous events of the Cultural Revolution.
Another differing cultural norm, in comparison to other countries and cultures, was that
during and after the Cultural Revolution, the political outlets do not address the events for all that
20 Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 173. 21 Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 172. 22 Bo Yang, The Ugly Chinaman and the Crisis of Chinese Culture (1992), quoted in Thomas Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 180. 23 Chen, “Lost in revolution and reform”, 222.
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they entailed, instead only the positive outcomes are touted and praised by “camouflaging and
beautifying” the events that took place. These positives overlook the pain, suffering, and 24
horrors that occurred to many during this time. As well, the social norm of rectifying events after
a mass period of devastation was unlike other countries. In this event, no one was held
accountable for these actions by the state, nor no one to blame or stand trial besides the 25
scapegoated ‘gang of four’, whereas Mao is still held in high regard today. The subject of the
Cultural Revolution itself has also become a ‘persona non grata’ so to speak, as it is only
addressed by state leaders using “euphemistic labels such as the ‘ten lost years’ and addressing it
in the most abstract terms.” . This has turned into the creation of a “ cultural memory loss” 26 27
regarding the many unsavoury events that occured. This memory loss is set to be remedied by
scar literature; however, compared to the power of the state media, the power of scar literature
pales in comparison to reach an audience as wide as the population of China.
Finally, the cultural phenomena of spectatorship is showcased during this time period.
Widely shown in ‘scar literature’ pieces, these recounts depict the role of onlookers looking by
as extremely violent and heinous acts are committed, like in the account of Jung Chang above as
well as in various other works. Another example of scar literature can be seen in a work by the
author Yan Geling, where scenes of citizens watching others experience pain and suffering with
no move to help, instead watching with rabid fascination at someone other than themselves being
harmed. She states in one of her novels, “…the prisoners immediately rush to watch the event…
24 Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 327. 25 Andrews, Art in turmoil, 27. 26 ibid., idem. 27 Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 327.
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Someone is enduring agony and punishment… Someone else instead is tortured and his skin is
split and his flesh breaks forth, so how lucky they are, being only the onlooker…” . This 28
depiction showcases the mindset within those who experienced these events during the Cultural
Revolution, which shows the “coldness, and numbness of the Chinese mass” while watching as 29
their fellow compatriots experience suffering over a long span of time . This long exposure to an
“everyday life of terror and arbitrariness” became deeply integrated into the mindset of the 30
affected Red Guard generation. These events serve as a vivid reminder that will be mentally
carried into the future to always be a “rule-obeying spectator” rather than an activist. While this 31
‘bystander syndrome’ is not unique to China, because of these events, China has gained a
perspective in the minds of many that getting involved means making yourself a target.
However, because of this, some sources state that even those who did not physically commit
these acts still “were to some extent the assailants” by allowing the events to unfold. 32
Conclusion
Overall, the Red Guard generation is seen to be both influenced by Chinese culture, as
well as an influencer of Chinese culture. The education this generation received under Mao
served as the foundation for these events, and Mao’s mandate was the explosive catalyst which
unleashed the violent events that spanned the Cultural Revolution. The cultural production of
scar literature by former red guards shows the repressed pain and anguish still needing to be
expressed about the events that occurred. This genre also showcases the phenomenon of
28 ibid., 330. 29 Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 330. 30 Heberer, “The ‘Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution’”, 173. 31 Cai, “Scar Literature reconsidered”, 330. 32 ibid., idem.
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spectatorship, which we discussed briefly in class as prominent feature of Chinese society today.
The events of the Cultural Revolution give the people of that experienced the events a vivid and
traumatic standpoint in which to view the world as well as shape how Chinese culture was
shaped, and still is shaped today because of their past experiences. This is important, because
even though China possesses a vast and expansive cultural fabric that spans across thousands of
years, and the phenomena of the Red Guards and the ‘Lost Generation’ is a minuscule portion of
this background, it is nonetheless a pivotal factor in understanding the nation identity of China
and how Chinese culture exists today.
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Reference List
Andrews, Julia F, “The art of the Cultural Revolution”, in Richard King (eds.), Art in turmoil: The Chinese Cultural Revolution 1966-76, Vancouver: UBC Press, 2010.
Cai, Shenshen, “Scar Literature reconsidered: Yan Geling’s novels The Criminal Lu Yanshi and A Woman’s Epic”, Social Semiotics 25 , 3 (March 2015), 322-341.
Chen, Yixin, “Lost in revolution and reform: The socioeconomic pains of China’s red guards generation, 1966–1996”, Journal of Contemporary China 8, 21 (1999), 219-239.
Gao, Mobo, “Debating the Cultural Revolution: Do We Only Know What We Believe?”, Critical
Asian Studies 34, 3 (2002), 419-434.
Heaslet, Juliana P, “The Red Guards: Instruments of Destruction in the Cultural Revolution”, Asian Survey 12, 12 (December 1972), 1032-1047.
Heberer, Thomas, “The “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution”: China’s modern trauma”, Journal of Modern Chinese History 3, 2 (2009), 165-181.
Lin, Qianhan, “Lost in Transformation? The Employment Trajectories of China’s Cultural Revolution Cohort”, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 646, (March 2013), 172-193.
Marxists, “Resolution on certain questions in the history of our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China”, https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm, accessed November 22nd 2017.
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https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm
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